shoplesesne.com -The presidency of Andrew Johnson was a period of intense political conflict and confrontation, particularly between the executive branch and Congress. Johnson, who assumed the presidency after the assassination of Abraham Lincoln in 1865, quickly became embroiled in a fierce struggle with Congress over the direction of Reconstruction and the future of the Southern states after the Civil War. His approach to governing, his contentious relationship with Congress, and his controversial policies contributed to one of the most tumultuous and divisive periods in American history.
This article explores the critical conflict between Andrew Johnson and Congress, focusing on the Reconstruction Acts, Johnson’s policies, and the impeachment trial that ultimately led to his near removal from office. The struggle between Johnson and Congress highlights the deep divisions within the nation during the Reconstruction era and set important precedents for the balance of power between the branches of government.
The End of the Civil War and Johnson’s Ascension to the Presidency
Lincoln’s Assassination and Johnson’s Inheritance
On April 14, 1865, President Abraham Lincoln was tragically assassinated by John Wilkes Booth at Ford’s Theatre in Washington, D.C. Lincoln’s death came just days after the Confederate army, led by Robert E. Lee, surrendered to Union General Ulysses S. Grant at Appomattox Court House, effectively ending the Civil War. With Lincoln gone, Vice President Andrew Johnson assumed the presidency at one of the most critical junctures in American history.
Johnson, a Southern Democrat who had been a staunch Unionist during the war, inherited a nation deeply divided and in need of healing. Johnson’s ascension was seen by many as an opportunity for a smooth transition back to normalcy, particularly in the South. However, his approach to Reconstruction was soon to put him at odds with Congress and spark a fierce political battle.
Johnson’s Background and His Approach to Reconstruction
Before becoming president, Johnson had served as the military governor of Tennessee and had been a vocal opponent of secession. As a result, he was seen as a symbol of Southern loyalty to the Union. However, his Southern background and his belief in leniency toward the South’s return to the Union quickly became points of contention between Johnson and Congress.
Johnson’s vision for Reconstruction was focused on rapid reunification without significant changes to the Southern political and social order. He believed that the Southern states had never truly left the Union and that the federal government should restore them as quickly as possible. To this end, Johnson issued his Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction in May 1865, which offered pardons to most former Confederates who took an oath of loyalty to the Union. He also allowed Southern states to hold constitutional conventions and re-establish their governments, with minimal federal intervention.
Johnson’s Approach to African American Rights
One of the most controversial aspects of Johnson’s Reconstruction plan was his failure to address the rights of African Americans. Johnson was a strong believer in states’ rights and opposed any federal measures that would grant African Americans full civil rights or suffrage. His policies on race were more in line with the old Southern mindset, and he allowed the former Confederate states to pass Black Codes—restrictive laws that limited the freedom of African Americans and sought to maintain a system of racial hierarchy.
This failure to ensure the civil rights of newly freed African Americans set the stage for a growing conflict with Radical Republicans in Congress, who were committed to securing full rights for African Americans and ensuring that the South was fundamentally changed after the war.
The Growing Conflict with Congress
Radical Republicans vs. Johnson’s Leniency
The Republican Party, which had largely led the Union effort during the war, was sharply divided between Moderates and Radicals. The Radical Republicans, led by figures like Thaddeus Stevens and Charles Sumner, believed that Reconstruction should not only reunite the nation but also guarantee full civil rights for African Americans and restructure Southern society to eliminate the power of the old slaveholding elites.
The Radicals were alarmed by Johnson’s leniency and his lack of support for African Americans. They saw Johnson as a stumbling block to the fundamental changes they believed were necessary to ensure that the South could never again threaten the Union. Johnson’s resistance to civil rights measures, combined with his granting of pardons to former Confederates and his rapid restoration of Southern governments, caused a growing rift between the president and Congress.
The Civil Rights Act of 1866
In response to the Black Codes and the treatment of African Americans in the South, Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1866, which sought to protect the rights of African Americans and ensure that they were granted full citizenship and equal protection under the law. The bill was seen as a direct challenge to Johnson’s policies, and Johnson vetoed it, arguing that it represented an overreach of federal power.
Congress, in a historic move, overrode Johnson’s veto, making the Civil Rights Act of 1866 the first major piece of legislation in U.S. history to become law despite a presidential veto. This was a clear sign that Congress was determined to assert its authority over Reconstruction, and it marked the beginning of an intense struggle between the president and the legislative branch.
The Fourteenth Amendment
In the wake of Johnson’s veto, Congress moved to pass the 14th Amendment to the Constitution, which guaranteed birthright citizenship and equal protection under the law to all people born or naturalized in the United States, regardless of race. The amendment was designed to prevent the Southern states from passing discriminatory laws and to protect the rights of African Americans in the South.
Johnson, once again, opposed the 14th Amendment, believing it violated states’ rights and interfered with local governance. His opposition to the amendment was deeply unpopular in the North, and Congress, backed by popular support, managed to secure the ratification of the amendment in 1868. The passage of the 14th Amendment was a significant victory for Congress, as it represented the first major constitutional change aimed at securing the rights of African Americans.
The Reconstruction Acts and Johnson’s Opposition
The Military Reconstruction Act
In 1867, in response to Johnson’s obstruction of their policies, Congress passed the Military Reconstruction Act, which divided the South into five military districts and placed them under military rule. The act required Southern states to rewrite their constitutions, guarantee voting rights for African Americans, and ratify the 14th Amendment in order to be readmitted into the Union.
Johnson, who believed that the South should be allowed to govern itself without interference from the federal government, strongly opposed this act. He argued that it was unconstitutional and represented an unwarranted imposition on the Southern states. Johnson vetoed the Reconstruction Acts, but, as with earlier vetoes, Congress overrode his vetoes, ensuring the implementation of these more stringent Reconstruction measures.
The Growing Rift
Johnson’s repeated vetoes, combined with his efforts to prevent the implementation of Congressional Reconstruction policies, led to an increasing rift between the president and Congress. The Radical Republicans were determined to take control of Reconstruction, and Johnson’s resistance only strengthened their resolve to limit presidential power and assert Congressional authority over the process.
In 1868, the Tenure of Office Act was passed by Congress to prevent Johnson from removing key members of his cabinet who supported Congressional Reconstruction, particularly Edwin M. Stanton, the Secretary of War. The law required the president to seek Senate approval before dismissing any officials whose appointments had been confirmed by the Senate.
When Johnson attempted to dismiss Stanton in February 1868 without Senate approval, he violated the Tenure of Office Act, which provided Congress with the grounds to initiate impeachment proceedings.
The Impeachment of Andrew Johnson
The Charge of Impeachment
In February 1868, the House of Representatives, led by Radical Republicans, voted to impeach Andrew Johnson for violating the Tenure of Office Act. The charges centered on Johnson’s dismissal of Edwin M. Stanton and his attempts to undermine the Reconstruction Acts. The House passed the articles of impeachment by a vote of 128 to 47, and Johnson was formally impeached.
The case then moved to the Senate, where a trial was held to determine whether Johnson would be removed from office. Johnson’s legal defense argued that the Tenure of Office Act was unconstitutional and that the president had the authority to remove officials as he saw fit. However, the Senate was deeply divided on the issue, with many moderates siding with Johnson and others supporting his removal.
The Senate Trial and Acquittal
On May 16, 1868, after several weeks of deliberation, the Senate voted on the articles of impeachment. Johnson narrowly avoided conviction, with the final vote falling just one short of the two-thirds majority required for removal. 35 senators voted to convict, while 19 voted to acquit. Johnson’s acquittal allowed him to remain in office, but his political power was severely diminished.
Despite his survival, Johnson’s impeachment marked a pivotal moment in American history. It was the first time in the nation’s history that a president had been impeached, and the trial underscored the tension between the executive and legislative branches. The impeachment also highlighted the struggles over the future direction of the country in the aftermath of the Civil War.
Conclusion: The End of an Era
Andrew Johnson’s presidency was defined by his bitter struggle with Congress, and his political legacy remains deeply controversial. His approach to Reconstruction, which sought to swiftly reintegrate the Southern states with minimal intervention and without guarantees for African American rights, was in direct opposition to the more radical vision of Congressional Republicans.
The impeachment of Andrew Johnson demonstrated the limits of presidential power and set a significant precedent for future conflicts between the executive and legislative branches. While Johnson’s acquittal allowed him to remain in office, it was clear that Congress had emerged as the dominant force in shaping the nation’s Reconstruction policies.
The political battles of Johnson’s presidency left a lasting impact on the future of American governance and the course of Reconstruction. Though Johnson’s vision for the nation ultimately failed, the struggles of his administration marked a crucial turning point in the history of the United States.